Topic Review Guide the Nature of Science and Chemistry of Life

one.1: The Scientific discipline of Biology

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1777

Skills to Develop

• Place the shared characteristics of the natural sciences
• Summarize the steps of the scientific method
• Compare inductive reasoning with deductive reasoning
• Draw the goals of basic scientific discipline and practical science

(a)

(b)

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Formerly chosen blueish-dark-green algae, these (a) cyanobacteria, shown here at 300x magnification under a light microscope, are some of Earth's oldest life forms. These (b) stromatolites along the shores of Lake Thetis in Western Commonwealth of australia are aboriginal structures formed by the layering of cyanobacteria in shallow waters. (credit a: modification of work past NASA; credit b: modification of work past Ruth Ellison; calibration-bar data from Matt Russell)

What is biology? In elementary terms, biological science is the study of living organisms and their interactions with i another and their environments. This is a very broad definition because the scope of biology is vast. Biologists may study anything from the microscopic or submicroscopic view of a prison cell to ecosystems and the whole living planet (Figure \(\PageIndex{ane}\)). Listening to the daily news, you lot will quickly realize how many aspects of biology are discussed every day. For example, recent news topics include Escherichia coli (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)) outbreaks in spinach and Salmonella contamination in peanut butter. Other subjects include efforts toward finding a cure for AIDS, Alzheimer'southward illness, and cancer. On a global scale, many researchers are committed to finding ways to protect the planet, solve environmental issues, and reduce the effects of climate change. All of these various endeavors are related to different facets of the subject of biology.

Effigy \(\PageIndex{two}\): Escherichia coli (Eastward. coli) leaner, seen in this scanning electron micrograph, are normal residents of our digestive tracts that aid in the assimilation of vitamin K and other nutrients. However, virulent strains are sometimes responsible for illness outbreaks. (credit: Eric Erbe, digital colorization by Christopher Pooley, both of USDA, ARS, EMU)

The Process of Scientific discipline

Biological science is a scientific discipline, but what exactly is scientific discipline? What does the study of biology share with other scientific disciplines? Science (from the Latin scientia, pregnant "cognition") can be defined as knowledge that covers general truths or the operation of general laws, especially when acquired and tested by the scientific method. Information technology becomes clear from this definition that the application of the scientific method plays a major function in science. The scientific method is a method of research with divers steps that include experiments and careful ascertainment.

The steps of the scientific method will be examined in detail after, but 1 of the most important aspects of this method is the testing of hypotheses past means of repeatable experiments. A hypothesis is a suggested explanation for an effect, which tin can exist tested. Although using the scientific method is inherent to science, it is inadequate in determining what science is. This is because it is relatively easy to apply the scientific method to disciplines such as physics and chemistry, merely when it comes to disciplines like archaeology, psychology, and geology, the scientific method becomes less applicable as information technology becomes more hard to echo experiments.

These areas of written report are even so sciences, nonetheless. Consider archaeology—fifty-fifty though one cannot perform repeatable experiments, hypotheses may even so be supported. For instance, an archaeologist can hypothesize that an ancient culture existed based on finding a piece of pottery. Further hypotheses could be fabricated most various characteristics of this culture, and these hypotheses may be establish to be correct or false through continued support or contradictions from other findings. A hypothesis may become a verified theory. A theory is a tested and confirmed caption for observations or phenomena. Science may exist meliorate defined as fields of written report that effort to encompass the nature of the universe.

Natural Sciences

What would you await to see in a museum of natural sciences? Frogs? Plants? Dinosaur skeletons? Exhibits near how the encephalon functions? A planetarium? Gems and minerals? Or, mayhap all of the above? Science includes such diverse fields as astronomy, biology, computer sciences, geology, logic, physics, chemical science, and mathematics (Effigy \(\PageIndex{3}\)). However, those fields of science related to the concrete world and its phenomena and processes are considered natural sciences. Thus, a museum of natural sciences might contain whatever of the items listed above.

Effigy \(\PageIndex{3}\): The variety of scientific fields includes astronomy, biology, estimator scientific discipline, geology, logic, physics, chemical science, mathematics, and many other fields. (credit: "Image Editor"/Flickr)

In that location is no complete understanding when it comes to defining what the natural sciences include, however. For some experts, the natural sciences are astronomy, biology, chemical science, earth science, and physics. Other scholars choose to divide natural sciences into life sciences, which study living things and include biological science, and physical sciences, which report nonliving thing and include astronomy, geology, physics, and chemistry. Some disciplines such as biophysics and biochemistry build on both life and physical sciences and are interdisciplinary. Natural sciences are sometimes referred to as "hard scientific discipline" considering they rely on the use of quantitative data; social sciences that study social club and human behavior are more likely to use qualitative assessments to bulldoze investigations and findings.

Not surprisingly, the natural science of biology has many branches or subdisciplines. Cell biologists study cell structure and function, while biologists who study anatomy investigate the construction of an unabridged organism. Those biologists studying physiology, however, focus on the internal performance of an organism. Some areas of biology focus on but detail types of living things. For example, botanists explore plants, while zoologists specialize in animals.

Scientific Reasoning

One matter is mutual to all forms of science: an ultimate goal "to know." Curiosity and enquiry are the driving forces for the development of science. Scientists seek to understand the world and the fashion it operates. To do this, they use two methods of logical thinking: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

Anterior reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion. This type of reasoning is common in descriptive scientific discipline. A life scientist such as a biologist makes observations and records them. These data tin can be qualitative or quantitative, and the raw data can be supplemented with drawings, pictures, photos, or videos. From many observations, the scientist can infer conclusions (inductions) based on evidence. Inductive reasoning involves formulating generalizations inferred from careful observation and the analysis of a big amount of data. Brain studies provide an example. In this type of research, many live brains are observed while people are doing a specific activeness, such equally viewing images of food. The part of the encephalon that "lights up" during this action is then predicted to be the part decision-making the response to the selected stimulus, in this instance, images of food. The "lighting upwardly" of the various areas of the brain is caused by backlog assimilation of radioactive saccharide derivatives by active areas of the brain. The resultant increase in radioactive decay is observed by a scanner. Then, researchers can stimulate that part of the brain to run across if similar responses result.

Deductive reasoning or deduction is the type of logic used in hypothesis-based science. In deductive reason, the pattern of thinking moves in the opposite direction as compared to inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is a grade of logical thinking that uses a general principle or law to forecast specific results. From those general principles, a scientist can extrapolate and predict the specific results that would be valid as long as the full general principles are valid. Studies in climate change can illustrate this blazon of reasoning. For example, scientists may predict that if the climate becomes warmer in a item region, then the distribution of plants and animals should change. These predictions take been made and tested, and many such changes have been found, such as the modification of arable areas for agronomics, with modify based on temperature averages.

Both types of logical thinking are related to the two main pathways of scientific report: descriptive scientific discipline and hypothesis-based science. Descriptive (or discovery) scientific discipline, which is usually inductive, aims to observe, explore, and observe, while hypothesis-based science, which is usually deductive, begins with a specific question or trouble and a potential answer or solution that can be tested. The boundary betwixt these 2 forms of written report is often blurred, and almost scientific endeavors combine both approaches. The fuzzy boundary becomes apparent when thinking almost how hands observation can atomic number 82 to specific questions. For example, a gentleman in the 1940s observed that the burr seeds that stuck to his dress and his dog'south fur had a tiny hook structure. On closer inspection, he discovered that the burrs' gripping device was more reliable than a zipper. He somewhen adult a company and produced the hook-and-loop fastener popularly known today every bit Velcro. Descriptive science and hypothesis-based scientific discipline are in continuous dialogue.

The Scientific Method

Biologists study the living world past posing questions well-nigh it and seeking scientific discipline-based responses. This approach is common to other sciences every bit well and is often referred to every bit the scientific method. The scientific method was used even in ancient times, but it was first documented by England'due south Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626) (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)), who set up inductive methods for scientific inquiry. The scientific method is not exclusively used by biologists but can be practical to almost all fields of study as a logical, rational problem-solving method.

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Sir Francis Salary (1561–1626) is credited with being the first to define the scientific method. (credit: Paul van Somer)

The scientific process typically starts with an observation (often a problem to be solved) that leads to a question. Permit'south think about a uncomplicated trouble that starts with an observation and apply the scientific method to solve the trouble. One Monday forenoon, a pupil arrives at class and quickly discovers that the classroom is too warm. That is an observation that also describes a problem: the classroom is too warm. The educatee and then asks a question: "Why is the classroom so warm?"

Proposing a Hypothesis

Recall that a hypothesis is a suggested explanation that tin be tested. To solve a problem, several hypotheses may be proposed. For instance, one hypothesis might be, "The classroom is warm because no one turned on the air-conditioning." Simply there could exist other responses to the question, and therefore other hypotheses may be proposed. A 2d hypothesis might be, "The classroom is warm because there is a ability failure, and then the ac doesn't work."

Once a hypothesis has been selected, the pupil can make a prediction. A prediction is similar to a hypothesis simply it typically has the format "If . . . and then . . . ." For instance, the prediction for the first hypothesis might be, "If the pupil turns on the air-conditioning, then the classroom will no longer be besides warm."

Testing a Hypothesis

A valid hypothesis must exist testable. It should as well be falsifiable, meaning that information technology tin can be disproven by experimental results. Chiefly, science does not merits to "prove" anything because scientific understandings are e'er discipline to modification with further information. This step—openness to disproving ideas—is what distinguishes sciences from not-sciences. The presence of the supernatural, for example, is neither testable nor falsifiable. To test a hypothesis, a researcher will comport 1 or more experiments designed to eliminate ane or more of the hypotheses. Each experiment will have one or more variables and ane or more controls. A variable is whatsoever role of the experiment that can vary or change during the experiment. The control grouping contains every feature of the experimental group except it is non given the manipulation that is hypothesized about. Therefore, if the results of the experimental grouping differ from the control group, the departure must be due to the hypothesized manipulation, rather than some outside factor. Look for the variables and controls in the examples that follow. To test the outset hypothesis, the pupil would find out if the ac is on. If the air-conditioning is turned on just does not work, there should exist another reason, and this hypothesis should be rejected. To examination the second hypothesis, the student could bank check if the lights in the classroom are functional. If and then, there is no power failure and this hypothesis should exist rejected. Each hypothesis should exist tested past conveying out appropriate experiments. Be enlightened that rejecting one hypothesis does not determine whether or not the other hypotheses can be accepted; information technology simply eliminates ane hypothesis that is not valid (Effigy \(\PageIndex{5}\)). Using the scientific method, the hypotheses that are inconsistent with experimental data are rejected.

While this "warm classroom" case is based on observational results, other hypotheses and experiments might take clearer controls. For instance, a student might attend class on Monday and realize she had difficulty concentrating on the lecture. I observation to explain this occurrence might be, "When I eat breakfast before class, I am meliorate able to pay attention." The student could then design an experiment with a command to test this hypothesis.

In hypothesis-based science, specific results are predicted from a full general premise. This type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning: deduction proceeds from the general to the detail. Just the reverse of the procedure is also possible: sometimes, scientists accomplish a general conclusion from a number of specific observations. This type of reasoning is called inductive reasoning, and it proceeds from the particular to the general. Inductive and deductive reasoning are oftentimes used in tandem to advance scientific knowledge (Figure \(\PageIndex{half-dozen}\)).

Art Connexion

Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): The scientific method consists of a series of well-defined steps. If a hypothesis is not supported by experimental data, a new hypothesis tin be proposed.

In the example below, the scientific method is used to solve an everyday problem. Order the scientific method steps (numbered items) with the process of solving the everyday trouble (lettered items). Based on the results of the experiment, is the hypothesis correct? If information technology is wrong, suggest some alternative hypotheses.

1. Ascertainment
2. Question
3. Hypothesis (answer)
4. Prediction
5. Experiment
6. Result

1. In that location is something wrong with the electrical outlet.
2. If something is wrong with the outlet, my coffeemaker as well won't work when plugged into information technology.
3. My toaster doesn't toast my bread.
4. I plug my coffee maker into the outlet.
5. My coffeemaker works.
6. Why doesn't my toaster work?

Art Connection

Figure \(\PageIndex{half-dozen}\): Scientists use two types of reasoning, inductive and deductive reasoning, to accelerate scientific noesis. Every bit is the case in this example, the conclusion from anterior reasoning can oft become the premise for inductive reasoning.

Decide if each of the following is an case of inductive or deductive reasoning.

1. All flying birds and insects have wings. Birds and insects flap their wings as they move through the air. Therefore, wings enable flight.
2. Insects mostly survive balmy winters better than harsh ones. Therefore, insect pests will become more problematic if global temperatures increase.
3. Chromosomes, the carriers of DNA, separate into daughter cells during cell division. Therefore, DNA is the genetic material.
4. Animals equally diverse as humans, insects, and wolves all exhibit social behavior. Therefore, social beliefs must have an evolutionary advantage.

The scientific method may seem likewise rigid and structured. Information technology is important to keep in mind that, although scientists often follow this sequence, there is flexibility. Sometimes an experiment leads to conclusions that favor a modify in approach; oftentimes, an experiment brings entirely new scientific questions to the puzzle. Many times, scientific discipline does not operate in a linear manner; instead, scientists continually describe inferences and make generalizations, finding patterns every bit their research proceeds. Scientific reasoning is more complex than the scientific method alone suggests. Detect, too, that the scientific method can exist applied to solving problems that aren't necessarily scientific in nature.

Ii Types of Scientific discipline: Basic Science and Practical Science

The scientific community has been debating for the concluding few decades about the value of dissimilar types of scientific discipline. Is it valuable to pursue science for the sake of simply gaining knowledge, or does scientific cognition only have worth if we can apply it to solving a specific problem or to bettering our lives? This question focuses on the differences between ii types of science: basic science and engineering.

Bones science or "pure" science seeks to expand knowledge regardless of the short-term application of that knowledge. Information technology is not focused on developing a production or a service of firsthand public or commercial value. The immediate goal of basic science is cognition for knowledge's sake, though this does not mean that, in the finish, information technology may not result in a practical application.

In contrast, engineering science or "applied science," aims to use science to solve real-globe issues, making it possible, for example, to better a ingather yield, notice a cure for a item affliction, or salve animals threatened by a natural disaster (Figure \(\PageIndex{seven}\)). In applied science, the trouble is unremarkably divers for the researcher.

Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\): After Hurricane Ike struck the Gulf Coast in 2008, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service rescued this brown pelican. Thank you to applied science, scientists knew how to rehabilitate the bird. (credit: FEMA)

Some individuals may perceive applied science every bit "useful" and bones scientific discipline as "useless." A question these people might pose to a scientist advocating knowledge acquisition would exist, "What for?" A conscientious look at the history of science, notwithstanding, reveals that basic knowledge has resulted in many remarkable applications of great value. Many scientists think that a bones understanding of science is necessary earlier an application is developed; therefore, applied science relies on the results generated through bones science. Other scientists think that it is time to move on from basic science and instead to find solutions to actual problems. Both approaches are valid. It is true that in that location are issues that need firsthand attending; however, few solutions would exist establish without the help of the wide knowledge foundation generated through bones science.

1 example of how basic and engineering can work together to solve practical bug occurred later the discovery of Deoxyribonucleic acid structure led to an understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing Dna replication. Strands of Deoxyribonucleic acid, unique in every homo, are found in our cells, where they provide the instructions necessary for life. During Dna replication, Deoxyribonucleic acid makes new copies of itself, shortly before a cell divides. Understanding the mechanisms of Dna replication enabled scientists to develop laboratory techniques that are now used to identify genetic diseases, pinpoint individuals who were at a crime scene, and decide paternity. Without basic scientific discipline, information technology is unlikely that applied science would exist.

Another instance of the link between bones and applied research is the Human Genome Project, a report in which each human being chromosome was analyzed and mapped to decide the precise sequence of Deoxyribonucleic acid subunits and the exact location of each factor. (The gene is the basic unit of heredity; an individual'southward complete collection of genes is his or her genome.) Other less complex organisms have likewise been studied as part of this projection in order to gain a better understanding of man chromosomes. The Human Genome Project (Effigy \(\PageIndex{eight}\)) relied on bones research carried out with simple organisms and, afterward, with the human genome. An important end goal eventually became using the data for applied research, seeking cures and early diagnoses for genetically related diseases.

Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\): The Human Genome Project was a 13-year collaborative endeavour among researchers working in several different fields of science. The project, which sequenced the entire human genome, was completed in 2003. (credit: the U.S. Department of Energy Genome Programs (http://genomics.energy.gov))

While inquiry efforts in both bones science and technology are commonly carefully planned, it is of import to note that some discoveries are made by serendipity, that is, by ways of a fortunate accident or a lucky surprise. Penicillin was discovered when biologist Alexander Fleming accidentally left a petri dish of Staphylococcus bacteria open up. An unwanted mold grew on the dish, killing the bacteria. The mold turned out to be Penicillium, and a new antibiotic was discovered. Even in the highly organized world of science, luck—when combined with an observant, curious mind—can lead to unexpected breakthroughs.

Reporting Scientific Work

Whether scientific research is bones science or engineering science, scientists must share their findings in guild for other researchers to expand and build upon their discoveries. Collaboration with other scientists—when planning, conducting, and analyzing results—are all important for scientific inquiry. For this reason, important aspects of a scientist's piece of work are communicating with peers and disseminating results to peers. Scientists can share results by presenting them at a scientific coming together or conference, only this approach tin can accomplish only the select few who are present. Instead, almost scientists present their results in peer-reviewed manuscripts that are published in scientific journals. Peer-reviewed manuscripts are scientific papers that are reviewed by a scientist's colleagues, or peers. These colleagues are qualified individuals, ofttimes experts in the same research area, who guess whether or not the scientist's work is suitable for publication. The procedure of peer review helps to ensure that the research described in a scientific paper or grant proposal is original, significant, logical, and thorough. Grant proposals, which are requests for research funding, are too subject to peer review. Scientists publish their work so other scientists can reproduce their experiments under similar or different conditions to expand on the findings. The experimental results must be consequent with the findings of other scientists.

A scientific paper is very different from creative writing. Although inventiveness is required to design experiments, there are fixed guidelines when it comes to presenting scientific results. Starting time, scientific writing must be brief, concise, and accurate. A scientific paper needs to exist succinct simply detailed enough to allow peers to reproduce the experiments.

The scientific paper consists of several specific sections—introduction, materials and methods, results, and give-and-take. This structure is sometimes called the "IMRaD" format. There are usually acquittance and reference sections every bit well as an abstract (a concise summary) at the beginning of the paper. There might be boosted sections depending on the type of newspaper and the periodical where it will exist published; for example, some review papers require an outline.

The introduction starts with brief, but broad, background information nigh what is known in the field. A good introduction also gives the rationale of the work; it justifies the work carried out and also briefly mentions the end of the paper, where the hypothesis or research question driving the research will be presented. The introduction refers to the published scientific work of others and therefore requires citations following the style of the journal. Using the work or ideas of others without proper citation is considered plagiarism.

The materials and methods section includes a complete and authentic description of the substances used, and the method and techniques used past the researchers to gather information. The clarification should exist thorough enough to allow another researcher to echo the experiment and obtain similar results, only it does non have to be verbose. This section will also include information on how measurements were fabricated and what types of calculations and statistical analyses were used to examine raw information. Although the materials and methods section gives an accurate description of the experiments, it does non discuss them.

Some journals crave a results section followed by a word section, but it is more than common to combine both. If the journal does not allow the combination of both sections, the results section simply narrates the findings without any further interpretation. The results are presented by ways of tables or graphs, but no duplicate information should be presented. In the give-and-take department, the researcher will interpret the results, describe how variables may be related, and endeavour to explain the observations. It is indispensable to conduct an extensive literature search to put the results in the context of previously published scientific research. Therefore, proper citations are included in this section as well.

Finally, the conclusion section summarizes the importance of the experimental findings. While the scientific paper most certainly answered ane or more scientific questions that were stated, any good research should lead to more questions. Therefore, a well-washed scientific paper leaves doors open for the researcher and others to continue and expand on the findings.

Review articles do not follow the IMRAD format because they exercise not present original scientific findings, or primary literature; instead, they summarize and comment on findings that were published as principal literature and typically include extensive reference sections.

Summary

Biology is the scientific discipline that studies living organisms and their interactions with one another and their environments. Science attempts to describe and sympathize the nature of the universe in whole or in part past rational means. Science has many fields; those fields related to the physical world and its phenomena are considered natural sciences.

Science tin can be basic or applied. The main goal of bones science is to expand noesis without any expectation of brusk-term applied application of that noesis. The primary goal of practical research, withal, is to solve practical problems.

Ii types of logical reasoning are used in science. Inductive reasoning uses particular results to produce general scientific principles. Deductive reasoning is a class of logical thinking that predicts results by applying full general principles. The mutual thread throughout scientific research is the use of the scientific method, a step-based procedure that consists of making observations, defining a problem, posing hypotheses, testing these hypotheses, and cartoon i or more conclusions. The testing uses proper controls. Scientists nowadays their results in peer-reviewed scientific papers published in scientific journals. A scientific research paper consists of several well-defined sections: introduction, materials and methods, results, and, finally, a terminal discussion. Review papers summarize the research washed in a particular field over a menstruation of time.

Art Connections

Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): In the example beneath, the scientific method is used to solve an everyday problem. Lodge the scientific method steps (numbered items) with the process of solving the everyday trouble (lettered items). Based on the results of the experiment, is the hypothesis right? If information technology is incorrect, propose some alternative hypotheses.

1. Observation
2. Question
3. Hypothesis (answer)
4. Prediction
5. Experiment
6. Result

1. There is something wrong with the electrical outlet.
2. If something is wrong with the outlet, my coffeemaker as well won't piece of work when plugged into it.
3. My toaster doesn't toast my staff of life.
4. I plug my coffee maker into the outlet.
5. My coffeemaker works.
6. Why doesn't my toaster piece of work?

Answer

1: C; 2: F; 3: A; four: B; v: D; six: E. The original hypothesis is incorrect, as the coffeemaker works when plugged into the outlet. Alternative hypotheses include that the toaster might be broken or that the toaster wasn't turned on.

Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\): Decide if each of the following is an example of inductive or deductive reasoning.

1. All flying birds and insects have wings. Birds and insects flap their wings as they motility through the air. Therefore, wings enable flying.
2. Insects by and large survive mild winters improve than harsh ones. Therefore, insect pests volition become more problematic if global temperatures increase.
3. Chromosomes, the carriers of DNA, divide into daughter cells during cell division. Therefore, Dna is the genetic material.
4. Animals equally diverse as humans, insects, and wolves all showroom social behavior. Therefore, social behavior must have an evolutionary reward.

Respond

one: inductive; ii: deductive; 3: deductive; 4: inductive.

Glossary

abstract

opening section of a scientific newspaper that summarizes the research and conclusions

engineering science

form of science that aims to solve real-world bug

basic science

science that seeks to aggrandize noesis and understanding regardless of the short-term application of that knowledge

biological science

the study of living organisms and their interactions with one another and their environments

conclusion

department of a scientific paper that summarizes the importance of the experimental findings

control

part of an experiment that does not change during the experiment

deductive reasoning

form of logical thinking that uses a general inclusive statement to forecast specific results

descriptive science

(as well, discovery scientific discipline) class of science that aims to observe, explore, and investigate

give-and-take

department of a scientific paper in which the writer interprets experimental results, describes how variables may be related, and attempts to explain the phenomenon in question

falsifiable

able to be disproven past experimental results

hypothesis

suggested caption for an observation, which tin exist tested

hypothesis-based scientific discipline

form of science that begins with a specific question and potential testable answers

inductive reasoning

form of logical thinking that uses related observations to get in at a general conclusion

introduction

opening department of a scientific paper, which provides background data about what was known in the field prior to the enquiry reported in the paper

life science

field of science, such as biology, that studies living things

materials and methods

section of a scientific paper that includes a consummate description of the substances, methods, and techniques used by the researchers to gather data

natural scientific discipline

field of science that is related to the physical earth and its phenomena and processes

peer-reviewed manuscript

scientific newspaper that is reviewed by a scientist's colleagues who are experts in the field of study

physical science

field of science, such as geology, astronomy, physics, and chemical science, that studies nonliving matter

plagiarism

using other people'south work or ideas without proper citation, creating the false impression that those are the author's original ideas

results

section of a scientific paper in which the author narrates the experimental findings and presents relevant figures, pictures, diagrams, graphs, and tables, without any further interpretation

review article

paper that summarizes and comments on findings that were published as principal literature

science

knowledge that covers general truths or the performance of general laws, especially when caused and tested by the scientific method

scientific method

method of research with defined steps that include observation, formulation of a hypothesis, testing, and confirming or falsifying the hypothesis

serendipity

fortunate accident or a lucky surprise

theory

tested and confirmed caption for observations or phenomena

variable

part of an experiment that the experimenter can vary or change

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Source: https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book:_General_Biology_%28OpenStax%29/1:_The_Chemistry_of_Life/1:_The_Study_of_Life/1.1:_The_Science_of_Biology

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